It’s easy to fall into a dinnertime rut, cooking the same meals with the same ingredients time and again. When your family is in search of a delicious way to shake things up in the kitchen, consider new ways to cook favorite dishes without completely rethinking the menu.
Replacing tired ingredients is an easy solution when classic recipes become bland and boring, which is a perfect reason to try cooking with 4th & Heart Ghee. As a 1:1 substitute for butter or oil, its spreadable texture makes it easy to use in baked goods, grilled dishes and beyond.
This superfood can do all the things butter can do – like make toast taste awesome and trick your kids into eating broccoli – but with additional benefits. For example, it maintains its molecular integrity at high temperatures, can be digested by lactose intolerant people, supports weight loss, improves digestion and reduces inflammation.
Consider these benefits of choosing 4th & Heart Ghee instead of butter:
Grass-fed and pasture-raised: It’s packed with naturally occurring fatty acids and CLA, which can improve gut health and biochemistry.
Spreadable and shelf-stable: Ghee is shelf-stable for up to 12 months and is best kept in the pantry. This means you never have to scramble to bring butter to room temperature quickly when baking or risk mangling your toast with cold butter.
High smoke point: When oil smokes, it becomes a trans fatty acid. With a smoke point of 485 F, ghee lets you cook away without worrying about high temperatures.
Natural source of butyric acid: Butyric acid naturally occurs in your gut and in ghee, helping your body absorb nutrients from the foods you eat.
Buttery taste: Ghee made in the traditional style provides a delicious, light and buttery taste, perfect for this Sweet Potato Bowl with Cilantro, Turmeric Ghee and Lime. It’s ideal for a light lunch or dinner as it’s bursting with vibrant flavors and wholesome ingredients.
To find more benefits of cooking with ghee, along with recipe inspiration, visit fourthandheart.com.
1/4 cup fresh cilantro, chopped, plus additional for garnish, divided
1 lime, juice only
1/4 cup crumbled feta or goat cheese (optional)
Preheat oven to 400 F.
In large bowl, toss cubed sweet potatoes with 1 tablespoon turmeric ghee, cumin powder and smoked paprika; add salt and pepper, to taste. Spread sweet potatoes evenly on baking sheet and roast 25-30 minutes, or until tender and slightly crispy on edges, turning halfway through.
Cook quinoa according to package instructions. Once cooked, fluff with fork and set aside.
In medium bowl, mix cooked quinoa with black beans, red onion and 1/4 cup chopped cilantro.
Drizzle half the lime juice over quinoa mixture and stir to combine. Add salt and pepper, to taste.
In large serving bowl, top quinoa mixture with roasted sweet potatoes. Drizzle remaining turmeric ghee over bowl. Squeeze remaining lime juice over top. Garnish with additional chopped cilantro and crumbled feta or goat cheese, if desired.
Make sure your grill game is on fire this summer. The right prepping, seasoning and grilling techniques can help you serve your favorite foods in the tastiest ways all summer.
Consider these helpful tips from the flavor experts at Watkins.
Seasoning with Staying Power
The first step for impressive flavor is proper preparation. For dry seasoning, blot meat or sliced vegetables (such as zucchini) with paper towels to dry. Then rub 1-2 teaspoons of vegetable oil over each piece to help your seasoning or dry rub stick.
For marinades, after mixing – but before adding the meat – reserve 2 tablespoons of marinade liquid to baste meat while on the grill. If you’re dicing meat (except for shrimp), do so before adding it to the marinade so each piece can soak in as much flavor as possible.
Finally, no grilling menu would be complete without burgers. Adding a seasoning tailor-made for this all-American classic, like Watkins Organic Hamburger Seasoning, brings an unforgettable boost of flavor. You’ll want about 1 tablespoon of seasoning for each pound of ground meat – just be sure to mix in thoroughly before you make your patties to distribute the flavor evenly.
Flavor for All Your Favorites
While most people think of meats for grilling season, there are so many ways to spice up all your favorite foods and beverages. For fajitas, you can use chili lime seasoning for the meat and put it on the rim of your lemonade or margaritas, too.
You can also switch it up and roast potatoes instead of fries to go with a well-seasoned burger. Try peppercorn Parmesan seasoning for a complementary flavor. If you’re looking for a finishing touch for steak, mushrooms make a perfect enhancement and you can use the same steak seasoning to prepare them.
A Showstopping Side
Grilled corn makes a fresh, juicy side for summer meals. For tender kernels and a milder char flavor, leave the husks on, soak the corn in water for 20-30 minutes and grill over medium-high heat for 15-20 minutes. For more char and caramelized flavor, remove the husks and grill over medium-high heat for 8-10 minutes, turning frequently.
After grilling, remove the husks (if needed) and lightly coat the corn in butter before seasoning. Corn can work with a range of flavor profiles – get creative with Watkins Organic Mesquite, Chili Lime or Peppercorn Parmesan seasoning blends to make your most memorable corn yet.
Whatever you add to your menu, enjoy finding new summer staples. For more flavors and grilling inspiration, visit watkins1868.com.
Combine chili lime seasoning, black pepper, cooking oil and pink salt. Spread mixture evenly over pork chops. Cover and refrigerate at least 30 minutes.
Heat grill to medium heat. Grill pork chops 4-5 inches from heat source, turning frequently, until no longer pink when cut near bone. Serve with hot sauce, if desired.
Sprinkle sirloin with steak seasoning and black pepper. Thread beef onto skewers along with bell peppers, onions and mushrooms, as desired.
Heat grill to medium-high heat. Grill, turning occasionally, until meat is cooked to desired doneness, 5-7 minutes. Serve atop cooked couscous or rice.
Elevate mealtimes with Caesar salad-inspired dishes
From putting a family meal on the table after activities to hosting a large crowd at your next get-together, a seasonal favorite like Caesar salad can serve as the perfect canvas for creating quick, easy-to-prepare meals.
With more than 100 varieties of fresh, healthy and convenient ready-to-eat salads – including 11 Caesar salad varieties like the Caesar Chopped Salad Kit – Fresh Express provides tasty, versatile salad kits that can be modified to fit nearly any kind of meal you might be craving.
Available in the refrigerated produce department, these premium mixes can be eaten as a standalone salad when time is of the essence or taken beyond the bowl and fused with another beloved classic, like tacos, for a burst of flavor and texture in every bite. These Fried Chicken Caesar Tacos, ready in just 30 minutes, feature savory Caesar salad – crisp, chopped romaine; herb-seasoned crouton crumbles; cracked pepper; grated Parmesan cheese; and a delicious Parmesan Caesar dressing – enveloped in a crispy, golden chicken shell.
Even when time is limited, flavor doesn’t need to be compromised. Inspired by high-end dining experiences, the Fresh Express Twisted Creamy Truffle Caesar Chopped Salad Kit provides a gourmet twist to turn these Creamy Truffle Caesar Pork Sandwiches into a culinary delight. Ready is just 20 minutes and featuring tender pork strips; a Caesar salad mix of garden-fresh crispy romaine lettuce, delicate sprinkles of truffle Parmesan cheese, crunchy garlic brioche croutons and creamy dressing; and sauteed onions on a toasted bun, every bite is a sensation to be savored.
To find more inspiration for elevating your salads or locate a store near you, visit freshexpress.com.
Preheat pan on stove over medium-high heat. Season pork chops with Italian seasoning.
When pan is hot, add oil and pork chops. Cook pork chops, turning halfway through, until they reach minimum internal temperature of 145 F, 6-8 minutes per side (depending on thickness).
Once pork chops are cooked through, remove from pan and let rest a few minutes.
Peel and slice onion. After resting, slice pork into strips; set aside.
In same pan, saute onion until translucent, about 5 minutes. Set aside.
In large bowl, combine lettuce, dressing, croutons and cheese from salad kit.
In separate pan, toast buns until golden brown; set aside.
To build sandwiches, place sliced pork on bottom halves of toasted buns. Top with prepared salad mixture and sauteed onions. Finish with top halves of buns.
In shallow bowl, beat eggs. In separate bowl, combine flour and half packet of taco seasoning.
Place chicken in resealable bag and, using meat tenderizer, pound to 1/4-inch thickness.
In medium saute pan, heat oil over medium heat.
Season chicken breasts with remaining taco seasoning.
Coat chicken in flour mixture, dip into beaten eggs then coat chicken in flour mixture again, pressing firmly to adhere.
In pan with hot oil, cook battered chicken until golden brown, flipping halfway through, until chicken reaches minimum internal temperature of 165 F, 4-5 minutes per side (depending on thickness). Fry in batches to avoid overcrowding pan, if necessary.
Once fully cooked, fold chicken over to create taco shell-shape. Place sheet pan on top to hold shape, 3-4 minutes.
In large bowl, combine lettuce, dressing, croutons and cheese from salad kit.
Once chicken taco shells set, carefully remove sheet pan. Fill each taco shell with prepared salad mixture.
In between summer adventures and hot afternoons spent poolside, you’re likely looking to combat rising temperatures with a cool, refreshing beverage. This year, quench your thirst with drinks that play up the trendiness of bold flavors.
While many concoctions can help you beat the heat, some gems seem to hit the spot better than others. Consider one of the trendiest beverages that is increasingly becoming available at smoothie and juice bars nationwide but which you can also prepare at home: the tempting, bold taste of the Mangonada. With a harmonious fusion of sweet, spicy and tangy flavors, this thirst-quencher captures the essence of tropical indulgence with the majestic mango at the center of its symphony of flavors.
“Mango not only adds a burst of flavor but also brings a unique depth to the beverage,” said Dan Spellman, director of marketing for the National Mango Board.
Central to the Mangonada is Tajín Fruity Chamoy Sauce and Clásico Seasoning – a zesty blend of chili peppers, lime and sea salt – which are must-have ingredients to make the beverage. They combine to infuse the drink with a subtle kick, balancing the mango’s sweetness with a hint of spiciness that hits different.
This beloved beverage has captured the hearts and palates of people worldwide with its bold flavors and vibrant spirit to make summer deliciously unforgettable.
For another take on a classic drink, give this Tangy Chamoy Tropical Daiquiri a try at your next summer cookout. You can enjoy its cool, refreshing flavor with just the right touch of spice from Tajín Fruity Chamoy Hot Sauce with the yellow cap, which is made with natural ingredients but offers a unique fruity and tangy flavor, ideal for pairing with sweet snacks like fruits, smoothies, mangonadas and ice pops. With no added sugar or coloring, they’re perfect for the entire family all summer long.
There are thousands of ways to enjoy these unique flavors. To find more refreshing drinks that beat the summer heat, visit tajin.com.
Measure 1 cup mango cubes, mango nectar, lime juice, ice and agave nectar into blender cup. Blend until smooth.
In separate small dishes, add 1 ounce hot sauce and 1 ounce seasoning.
Dip rim of 14-ounce Collins glass into hot sauce then seasoning to coat. Drizzle remaining hot sauce along inside of glass.
In glass, pour 1 tablespoon chamoy sauce followed by blended Mangonada. Top with remaining fresh mango cubes and sprinkle with additional seasoning. Add tamarind candy to glass, if desired.
Few things complement warm weather like a summer spread with everyone’s favorite foods. From fresh appetizers and classics like grilled hot dogs to skewered sides and sweet, sugary desserts, these summertime recipes are sure to bring friends, family and neighbors running to get in on the action.
To find more recipe ideas that bring the heat to summer cookouts, visit Culinary.net.
Up Your Grilling Game with Beloved Toppings
Hot dogs and brats are summer favorites for a reason: the delicious (and personalized) add-ons. Make sure your spread fits everyone’s taste buds with an assortment of tasty toppings like these:
Ketchup
Mustard
Relish
Hot sauce
Onions
Pickles
Sauerkraut
Cole slaw
Jalapenos
Diced tomatoes
Guacamole
Nacho cheese
Shredded cheese
Start Summer Meals with a Bright, Fresh Salad
Bright colors and fresh flavor bring out the best in summer meals, starting with seasonal salads that look as though the ingredients were just picked from a garden.
Orange, grapefruit and avocado are perfect accompaniments in this Citrus Spring Mix Salad when paired with Fresh Express Spring Mix. This garden-fresh blend combines carefully selected tender baby butter and red and green leaf lettuces with baby greens including spinach, arugula and kale that are picked when the tiny leaves are perfect and whole.
With more than 100 varieties of fresh, healthy and convenient ready-to-eat salads, as well as an assortment of salad greens you can use to create your ideal summer dishes, the kits and lettuce blends are available in the refrigerated product department of your favorite grocery store.
Visit freshexpress.com to discover more than 300 fresh recipes and find availability near you.
To make dressing: In small bowl, whisk orange juice, orange zest, white wine vinegar, Dijon mustard, sugar and salt. Set aside.
To make salad: In large bowl, toss spring mix with salad dressing. Divide salad evenly among two plates. Top with oranges, grapefruit, avocado and onion.
A Simple, Skewered Side
Keep your summer meals simple by leaning into versatile ingredients that can help you whip up a variety of side dishes.
These Grilled Red Potato Skewers display the delicious, nutritious, versatile qualities of Wisconsin Potatoes. With a multitude of varieties, they’re a favorite among world-class chefs, home cooks, large and small supermarkets and even the pickiest of eaters.
It can be love at first bite with these 100% gluten-free potatoes that can add a touch of nutrition to summer cookouts. They’re a good source of vitamin B6, high in vitamin C, rich in potassium and an excellent source of fiber.
2 medium russet or Yukon gold Wisconsin potatoes or 6 red Wisconsin potatoes
2 medium zucchini
1/2 smoked sausage rope
4 skewers (12 inches each)
1/2 cup Italian dressing
Preheat grill to medium heat. Cut potatoes in half. Cut zucchini and sausage same width as potatoes. Skewer potatoes, zucchini and sausage. Repeat for each skewer.
Place skewers in dish and cover with Italian dressing. Marinate 5 minutes.
Place skewers on grill and cook 5 minutes on each side, or until potatoes are done. Remove from grill and serve.
Cap the Night with a Brown Sugar Delight
Summer meals from small plates to grilled fare may be tasty, but don’t fill up entirely on the main course. Remember to save room for your favorite warm-weather sweets.
These Brown Sugar Meringues provide bursting summertime flavor in a little, handheld bite. They’re ideal for sharing with loved ones after a weekend barbecue or birthday celebration and, with just a few ingredients, they’re as easy to make as they are to enjoy.
To help bake this delicious dessert, you can trust Domino to deliver quality, consistency and results that only a century of experience can bring. Its Light Brown Sugar offers a buttery, caramel flavor, making it a perfect choice for sweets of all kinds.
Preheat oven to 225 F. Line three baking sheets with parchment paper. Set aside.
Pour 1 inch of water into medium saucepan and heat it until simmering. In heat-proof bowl, mix egg whites, brown sugar, granulated sugar and salt. Put bowl on top of saucepan and warm mixture until it reaches 125 F. Stir continuously and make sure mixture does not touch water.
Carefully remove from heat. Using electric mixer, beat mixture at high speed 8-10 minutes. Transfer meringue into piping bag fitted with star tip. Pipe 12 meringues per baking sheet.
Sprinkle turbinado sugar on top of meringues, if desired. Bake 1 hour. Turn off oven and allow meringues to rest inside oven 1 hour. Remove from oven and enjoy.
A beautifully designed charcuterie board may feel more like a grown-up treat, but with the right ingredients, delicious grazing boards can provide fun and nutrition for the whole family.
No matter what you call it, charcuterie boards, grazing boards and snack platters are all basically the same thing. The boards make a trendy addition to an entertaining menu, but a platter or kid-friendly board can be equally pleasing.
What you serve on a grazing board is entirely up to you. Most include a selection of meats and cheeses, and many incorporate nuts, crackers, dips and jams. Some also incorporate fresh fruits and vegetables. Creating your own board means there really are no rules; you can add just about anything you want.
To build a successful board, keep these tips in mind:
Choose ingredients and elements that don’t require temperature control. The idea of a grazing board is that it sits out for a while. Avoid anything that needs refrigeration, heat or will lose its shape or flavor if it rests for an extended amount of time.
Select a surface large enough to hold a variety of food. It can be a simple cutting board or a cute platter. There’s no specific size requirement but err on the side of bigger; spacing out your goodies can be more attractive and less messy.
Use high-quality ingredients to ensure every bite is delicious and nutritious. While shopping, remember to look for the Produce for Kids and Healthy Family Project logos next to favorite items in the produce department, as adding these flavorful fruits and veggies to your cart can help make a difference in your community.
Build your board around a theme to add an extra element of fun. Use mini cookie cutters to make fun, kid-friendly shapes out of cheese and meats. Be mindful of colors; a rainbow platter is vibrant and appealing, and colorful fruits and veggies offer a strong mix of nutrients.
Remember it doesn’t have to be elaborate. Classic favorites are all you need. Even kid favorites like sections of mandarin oranges, carrot sticks and chocolate chips are fair game for a family-friendly board.
In a world of packed schedules and boring food, it can feel like doing the healthy thing means giving up some of what makes you happy – like treats and flavors you love. Choosing health shouldn’t mean restricting yourself; everyone deserves a treat now and again.
Try incorporating better-for-you ingredients into your favorite indulgences. Look for convenient, ready-to-use products, like Premier Protein High Protein Shakes, to help infuse the nutrition you need with the joy you deserve. With 30 grams of protein, 160 calories and 1 gram of sugar, the shakes make it easy to take the first step and keep that momentum going, adding nutrient-dense protein to nearly any recipe.
In addition to a smooth, creamy texture, each shake delivers 24 vitamins and minerals including vitamins C and E, which help support a healthy immune system as part of a healthy diet and lifestyle. With 11 flavors – including strawberries & cream and chocolate – there’s an impossibly indulgent option for everyone to make a healthy life a happy endeavor through recipes like Peanut Butter Jelly Ice Cream and Chocolate Ice Cream with “Caramel” Sauce.
In large, heavy saucepan, heat milk, protein shake, brown sugar and salt until bubbles form around sides of pan. Whisk small amount of hot mixture into egg. Return to pan, whisking constantly.
Cook and stir over low heat until mixture thickens and coats back of spoon. Remove from heat; whisk in peanut butter. Quickly transfer to bowl; place in ice water and stir 2 minutes. Stir in cream and vanilla. Press wax paper onto surface of custard. Refrigerate several hours or overnight.
Fill cylinder of ice cream freezer 2/3 full; freeze according to manufacturer's directions.
When ice cream is frozen, spoon into freezer container, layering with jelly; freeze 2-4 hours before serving.
Nutritional information per serving: 271 calories; 23 g total fat; 11 g saturated fat; 0 g trans fat; 72 mg cholesterol; 205 mg sodium; 13 g total carbohydrates; 1 g dietary fiber; 8 g total sugars; 6 g protein.
Wash and scrub sweet potato. Pierce with fork several times. Place on microwave-safe plate and microwave 5 minutes; flip and microwave 5 minutes. Allow to cool.
In microwave-safe bowl, microwave chocolate chips in 20-second increments, stirring between each increment until smooth and melted. Set aside.
Remove sweet potato skin and thoroughly mash. Pack into 3/4 cup measuring cup. Place in large blender.
Add melted chocolate to blender along with vanilla, sea salt, coconut sugar and chocolate protein shake.
Place lid on blender and blend on high at least 1 minute, or until ingredients are smooth and incorporated.
Transfer to ice cream maker and prepare according to manufacturer's directions then transfer to airtight container and freeze 2-3 hours.
To make "caramel" sauce: In microwave-safe bowl, microwave coconut oil and syrup 30 seconds. Stir and microwave 30 seconds, or until melted and smooth. Stir in almond butter and whisk until smooth. Add sea salt and vanilla extract; whisk to combine.
Set "caramel" sauce aside at room temperature about 30 minutes. Top ice cream with sauce and additional chocolate chips, if desired.
Nutritional information per serving: 346 calories; 18 g total fat; 11 g saturated fat; 5 mg cholesterol; 219 mg sodium; 40 g total carbohydrates; 4 g dietary fiber; 31 g total sugars; 7 g protein.
Between work, after-school activities and homework, planning memorable family time is nearly impossible. Changing that mindset can start by making mealtime simpler with recipes that serve up big smiles for the whole family and fuel fun, even on weeknights.
As a quick and easy mealtime solution that gives families time back to make lasting memories, Mrs. T’s Pierogies are pasta pockets filled with the stuff you love like creamy mashed potatoes, cheesy goodness and other big, bold flavors. Now, parents can get all their loved ones involved with the Go-Fun-Me Challenge – a commitment to make a simple dinner one night a week and create a memorable family experience in or out of the home with the time saved. By opting in between May 2-June 3, parents are entered to win $12,000 and a year supply of pierogies to help fund and fuel all of that fun.
You can find a little inspiration in recipes like these Pierogy Burrito Bowls, loaded with cheesy pierogies, cherry tomatoes, corn, sliced avocado and homemade avocado mayo crema for a simple meal everyone in the family can enjoy.
No matter how parents switch up their weeknight routines, like a trip to the park or an at-home movie night, pierogies make weeknight recipes like this one possible because they’re simple and easy to prepare, leaving more time for parents to do the stuff they love with the ones they love.
To make burrito bowls: In medium skillet over medium heat, add avocado oil. Saute pierogies in batches, approximately 8 minutes on both sides, until golden brown. Remove from heat and set aside.
Divide pierogies, cherry tomatoes, corn, avocado, pickled red onions and Cotija cheese evenly among serving bowls. Garnish with cilantro.
To make avocado mayo crema: In food processor, process mayo, avocado and lime juice until smooth.
Drizzle avocado mayo crema over bowls, as desired.
Today the koji mold is a master fermenter, but it has a checkered past
By Rachel Ehrenberg
Nearly 9,000 years ago, around the time that humans were first domesticating corn and pigs, some people in China were taming fungi.
One such fungus, the mold Aspergillus oryzae, would go on to become a culinary superstar. Through fermentation of raw ingredients like soybeans or rice, A. oryzae helps to bring us soy sauce, sake and several other traditional Asian foods. It does so by breaking down proteins and starches so that other microbes can finish off the fermentations.
But A. oryzae wasn’t always so obliging. The wild version of the mold makes potent toxins that can poison the consumer and lead to cancer in the liver and other organs. Plus, it’s a destructive agricultural pest that causes millions of dollars in damage each year to crops like peanuts and corn.
What changed? Research is steadily revealing how the fungus transformed from a dangerous, toxic mold into a superior tool of food biotechnology that thrives in human-made environments. And as scientists study A. oryzae, they’re learning more about the process of domestication in microbes in general — which still remains in many ways mysterious.
“Almost everything we know comes from plants and animals,” microbial genomicist John Gibbons of UMass Amherst says of domestication. “You can see the difference between dogs and wolves, between corn and teosinte, but you can’t really see the differences between microbes … because most of it is changes in metabolism.”
A master digester
A. oryzae belongs to a family of fungi in a larger group known as the blue and green molds. Some 40 percent of the family’s species are in the genus Aspergillus, so named because the slender stalks and poofy tips of its spore-producing structures resemble an aspergillum, the holy water sprinkler used in some Christian denominations. The genus has several high-profile members, including helpful industrial species that crank out useful chemicals such as medicines or ferment foods, as A. oryzae does.
Known as the koji mold, A. oryzae is a master digester. In the first stage of soy sauce production, A. oryzae tackles the starter ingredients, typically soybeans and wheat; in sake production, it goes to work on rice. The mold’s digestive enzymes — proteases and amylases — break down the proteins and starches into simpler molecules that will be fermented by yeasts later on. The mold “smells like this wonderful mix of mushroom and grapefruit, and a little bit sour as well,” says microbiologist Benjamin Wolfe of Tufts University near Boston.
Other Aspergillus species are menaces — among them, Aspergillus flavus, the Mr. Hyde to A. oryzae’s Dr. Jekyll. A. flavus makes potent poisons called aflatoxins that, when ingested, are metabolized by the liver into compounds that damage DNA and otherwise mess with cellular functioning. It infects a variety of crops — corn, wheat, cassava, chili pepper, peanut, rice, sesame, sunflower seed and more. It can contaminate plants both before harvest and after, when crops are stored or shipped. The toxins can even contaminate the milk of animals that eat tainted feed. Despite various control measures, sporadic aflatoxin outbreaks poison and kill people and pets around the globe.
Scientists have long recognized that the hazardous A. flavus and the food fermenterA. oryzae are very close relatives — the two can appear identical in color and texture, or look very different from each other, making it tricky to tell them apart. Early investigations of their DNA reported remarkable similarity, and a 1998 study of a handful of genes from each fungus concluded that A.oryzaeevolved via domestication from A. flavus.
But A. oryzae doesn’t make aflatoxin and has been safely used as a food fermenter for thousands of years. Now scientists have begun to pinpoint the specific tweaks that that led to the major overhaul of the mold’s metabolism.
Soy sauce production involves two ferments; the koji mold is the workhorse of the first one.
CREDIT: BUSINESS INSIDER
A pivotal genetic deletion
Scientists had long been keen to establish genetic proof that A. oryzae couldn’t make aflatoxin, partly for reassurance that the mold is, and would remain, safe for fermenting food. Over the years, they have documented numerous large- and small-scale destructive changes in the cluster of more than two dozen genes that the fungus’s ancestor employed to make the toxin.
In one recent study, for example, scientists compared the genome of A. oryzae 14160, an industrial strain from China, with the genome of A. oryzae RIB40, a strain that was sequenced in 2005. In a report published in Frontiers in Microbiology in 2021, the team found that more than half of the aflatoxin gene cluster was deleted in strain 14160, while strain RIB40 has mutations in key genes here and there.
But from strain to strain to strain, there’s one deletion in the aflatoxin gene cluster that consistently appears, says Gibbons, who led the 2021 analysis with then-graduate student Katherine Chacón-Vargas (the group has been analyzing hundreds of strains of the molds). This finding suggests that at some point, a strain of wild A. flavus mold acquired the deletion, which rendered it harmless. After that, other genetic changes — mutations, deletions, other alterations — freely accumulated in the aflatoxin genes since they were no longer being used.
Domestication would have ensured that the harmless trait remained, says Gibbons. That’s because aflatoxin is a defensive compound the mold uses to kill other microbes. Since other microbes — specifically, yeasts — are part of the fermentation process for making soy sauce or the rice wine sake, the only fermentations that would work would be those in which Aspergillus toxins weren’t present to kill off the yeasts.
And in the cushy domesticated environment, the toxins aren’t important anyway. “You have this really stable food source all the time and there’s no longer a reason to produce defense chemicals because there’s enough food for everybody,” Gibbons says.
The loss of the ability to make aflatoxin probably paved the way for the fungus to ramp up its starch-digesting abilities, Gibbons adds. That’s because defense chemicals are expensive to make. “If they lose the ability to produce those toxins, it actually saves them a lot of energy that they can put into primary metabolism, like digesting starches and sugars and proteins,” he says.
Research suggests that this dialed-up ability to digest starch evolved over and over again. Back in 1989, for example, long before genome sequences were available for any Aspergillus species, several groups of scientists used methods to show that A. oryzae had multiple copies of the gene coding for alpha-amylase, the starch-digesting enzyme; two strains of the fungus had two copies while two other strains had three.
Researchers have since looked more closely and at more strains and found all sorts of variations on this theme. Strain RIB40, for example, has alpha-amylase genes on chromosomes 2, 3 and 5, while Gibbon’s team recently reported that the industrial strain from China, 14160, has two copies on chromosome 2 and a third copy on chromosome 6.
These kinds of changes also probably happened many times in the wild, says Gibbons, though before domestication, they weren’t retained because they weren’t of use. “But in the food environment, the more of these alpha-amylase genes you have, the more of this enzyme you’re producing,” he says. We humans would then have selected the starch-digesting powerhouse microbes in our domestication for fermentations.
Domestication of A. oryzae could have happened very quickly if research on Penicillium species, another famous mold in the Aspergillus family, is anything to go by.
P. camemberti, which is responsible for the white rind and distinctive smell of Camembert and Brie cheeses, is thought to have evolved from P. commune, a darkly pigmented, toxin-producing species with a musty odor. When Wolfe’s group at Tufts took a wild P. commune strain and another non-cheese Penicillium strain and serially grew them on cheese, after only eight generations — a period of a few weeks — the wild strains showed signs of domestication. Reporting in the journal mBio in 2019, the team found that the molds’ ability to make pigment and toxins diminished. At the same time, they lost their musty odor, acquiring the buttery, cheesy aromas characteristic of their domesticated relatives.
The human factor in fermentation
When contemplating the steps in the taming of A. oryzae, it’s useful to remember that fermentation and human evolution have probably always been intertwined, says microbial geneticist Kevin Verstrepen of VIB and Leuven University in Belgium.
For example, it’s easy to imagine early hominids eating fruit that had been visited by yeast and fermented into an alcoholic mash, and for humans to have recognized the merits of such fruit, both for its mind-altering effects and disinfectant qualities. “I wouldn’t be surprised if those things were discovered quite quickly,” says Verstrepen.
In the case of Aspergillus, spores are constantly drifting about — we inhale upwards of 200 per day, researchers estimate — and they will grow if they settle in a warm, humid spot. A recent reconstruction of the Aspergillus family tree by evolutionary biologist Antonis Rokas of Vanderbilt University suggests that A. flavus and some version of its domesticated counterpart, A. oryzae, last shared an ancestor roughly 3.8 million years ago. A. oryzae is naturally fond of rice, and versions of A. flavus that didn’t make aflatoxin were likely present on wild rice plants consumed by early humans.
With the advent of farming in the Neolithic some 12,000 or so years ago, domestication became a full court press. As people settled in communities and began regularly planting crops and keeping animals, there would have been an excess, perhaps for the first time, of grain or milk or meat. Fermentation provided a way to keep food past harvest and prolong shelf life.
“One of the best examples is raw milk — it goes bad in a day or so at room temperature,” says Gibbons. “But if you ferment it into a hard cheese, you can travel around with it in your pocket at room temperature for a month.”
An early example of people intentionally fermenting foods — very likely using Aspergillus — comes from the Neolithic village Jiahu in Henan province in China, a site with artifacts suggesting domesticated rice and early musical instruments. In 2004, a team reported that pottery shards from the site contained residues of a fermented drink of rice, honey and fruit — basically, a rice wine or “proto-sake,” says Gibbons. Scientists have since investigated residues in vessels from two other early Neolithic sites in China and found traces of fungi, including some that are startlingly like our hero, the koji mold.
Initially, people probably relied on spontaneous colonization by A. oryzae and other microbes but at some point, “back-slopping” developed, wherein a portion of a previous ferment is used to start a new one, like a sourdough starter is used for bread. This intentional fermentation with A. oryzae appears to have been happening as early as 2,300 years ago: The mold gets a mention in the ancient Chinese text Zhouli (Rites of the Zhou dynasty) that dates to 300 BCE. Some time later, people began breeding A. oryzae on steamed rice; its spores were then separated from the grain with a silk sieve and dried for use as needed.
Verstrepen is fond of telling his students that beer yeasts, living year-round in their vats where they are warm and well-fed, are like dogs, while wine yeasts, which are harnessed during the harvest but may intermingle with wild species in the intervening months, are like cats.
Today, says Rokas, A. oryzae is like a dog. There are numerous bred strains that people can order depending on their specific fermenting needs. But for a long time, there would have been unfettered variety floating around — lots of A. oryzae/A.flavus strains with defunct toxin genes and differing abilities to digest starch, and a matter of fortune which ended up in your soy sauce or sake brew. The mold of the ancients, Rokas says, “must have been more catlike.”
Warmer temperatures and sun-filled days mean it’s time to take entertaining and socializing outdoors, and a key component of many outdoor gatherings is fresh-grilled food.
Because firing up the grill can make prepping meals quick and easy, it allows you to spend more time with friends and family rather than missing out on the sunshine while stuck in the kitchen. Whether you’re a first-time griller or consider yourself a master of the grates, there’s a grill available to meet your skill level and needs, such as these options that provide flexibility for small-to-midsize backyard spaces – as well as a large built-in model for custom outdoor kitchens – and a variety of features and function to make the most of your warm weather gatherings.
Portable, Small-Space Cooking
Ideal for first-time grillers, couples, small families or those with limited backyard spaces, the Megamaster 3-Burner Gas Grillwas designed to fuse performance and value. Despite its size, it can cater to almost any grilling or entertaining need with three stainless steel burners and 447 square inches of cooking space, a combination of versatility and capacity to prepare large quantities of food as well as various types of food simultaneously. Plus, it’s easy to maneuver on two heavy-duty wheels, making it simple to free up patio space after use. Learn more at megamaster.com.
Family-Sized Functionality
With ample cooking space to feed small and medium-sized groups, the Nexgrill 4-Burner Gas Grill with Side Burner is a perfect all-around grill for both beginners and seasoned grilling enthusiasts. Always ready to fire up some flavor, the durable grill also features a stainless steel side burner to saute, simmer and warm dishes simultaneously as well as 628 square inches of cooking space, meaning family favorites like burgers, dogs, chicken and more can be put on the table quickly. Find more information at nexgrill.com.
Elevate Your Outdoor Kitchen
If your outdoor living area includes enough space, you can elevate the outdoor cooking experience with an outdoor kitchen. Put a premium, built-in grill like the Spire 6-Burner Built-In Grill at the center of your custom, luxurious entertaining space. This dual-fuel, stainless steel gas grill features 904 square inches of cooking space and 73,000 British thermal units of cooking power across six main burners and an intense-heat ceramic rear burner, producing restaurant-quality sear marks and exceptional heat retention. Visit spireoutdoor.com to learn more about the durable, high-performance grilling solution.